A brief introduction to the main perspectives of psychopathology and interests and limitations of the biological approach of psychopathology.

A brief introduction to the main perspectives of psychopathology and interests and limitations of the biological approach of psychopathology. Abstract The psychopathology is a famous topic in the fields of psychology, psychiatry, medicine, neurology etc. Just like psychology studies about mind and behavior of humans and animals, psychopathology focuses on the study of either mental illness or mental distress or manifestation of behavior and experiences which may be indicative of mental illness or psychological impairment. There are many perspectives, approaches and theories that have been emerged in the history of psychopathology to view psychopathology from different angles. Among those perspectives, humanistic, environmental and naturalistic perspectives are very important. Here, I would like to give a brief introduction about these main perspectives and I would like to present interests and limitations of the orientation of the biological perspective of psychopathology. Introduction Human body gets sick because of many reasons. Just like the body, human mind also becomes sick. As there are numerous reasons for becoming sick of human body, there are various reasons for illnesses of the mind. The field dedicated to examine these illnesses of human mind is called “psychopathology.” The word “psycho” means mind while the word “pathology” means suffering (Schwartz, 1993). So psychopathology means suffering of the mind. Simply the field of psychopathology interests about both positive and negative feelings that humans experience in the social network. The field of psychopathology or as some say abnormal psychology is a very wide field and this field is always careful about mental disorders, mental illnesses, mental impairments, mental dysfunctions or psychological imbalances of human beings. According to the American Psychiatrist Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, a mental disorder is conceptualized as a “clinically significant behavior or psychological syndrome or pattern that occurs in an individual and that is associated with present distress (a painful symptom) or disability (impairment in one or more areas of functioning) or with a significantly increased risk of suffering death, pain, disability or an important loss of freedom” (p. 11). In the history of psychopathology, many perspectives, approaches and theories have tried to find the causes for psychopathology. Those perspectives have seen this issue from different angles and they also have presented various treatments for psychopathology. Among those perspectives, humanistic, environmental, naturalistic perspectives are very important. The naturalistic perspective which focuses on natural factors for psychopathology has five approaches. The artheorlic approach tries to find the causes for psychopathology considering facts from biology, behavior and cognition. According to this approach, people become psychopathological when human’s biological, behavioral and cognitive needs are threatened. The biological approach holds the view that psychopathology can be explained by biological means and it directs the attention towards imbalances of neurotransmitters and hormones, genetic vulnerabilities, constitutional liabilities, brain dysfunction and neural plasticity and physical deprivation while the behavioral approach sees the maladaptive behavior either as a failure of learning appropriate behaviors or learning maladaptive behaviors (Comer,1992). Here, special attention is given to classical and operant conditioning. As the behavioral approach sees, only the study of the directly observable behavior and stimuli and reinforcing conditions that control it could serve as a basis for understanding human behavior, normal or abnormal (Carson, Butcher & Mineka, 2000). According to the cognitive approach of psychopathology, illusions in thoughts, feelings and emotions, schemas make a person psychologically imbalanced (Schwartz, 1993). The cognitive behavioral therapy introduced by this approach is very important for psychological wellbeing. The experimental approach, which comes under naturalistic perspective focuses on whether changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. This approach relies on controlled methods, random assignment and the manipulation of variables to test psychopathology. The humanistic perspective which is especially concerned about an individual’s future rather than past is also a very important perspective that views psychopathology from a different angle. The psychoanalytic approach that comes under this perspective which was formulated by Sigmund Freud sees that people become psychopathological because of their unfulfilled desires. The levels of personality (id, ego and super ego), psychosexual stages and defense mechanisms are very important teachings of this approach. The structuralistic approach gives attention to the physiology of human body for mental disorders. Using experimental methods this approach tries to find the causes for psychopathology. This approach interests in studying sensory perception by manipulating stimuli and having subjects report back their experience. Introspection is a famous method used by this approach. Phenomenological approach studies the structure of various types of experience ranging from perception, thought, memory, imagination, emotion, desire, and volition to bodily awareness, embodied action, and social activity, including linguistic activity and concerns the combination between those factors and psychopathology. The existential approach focus on the importance of establishing values and acquiring a level of spiritual maturity worthy of the freedom and dignity bestowed by one’s humanness. So according to this approach, if these needs are threatened people become psychopathological. The environmental perspective of psychopathology pays main attention towards the environmental factors for psychopathology. The developmental approach that comes under this perspective is designed to better understand the complexities of human development. And its goal is to chart the pathways individuals take in development of psychological difficulties and normal and optimal psychological health. According to ecosystem approach which is based on communication theory, individual has been in co-evolution with environment. This approach describes a view that parts of nature integrate into each other at various levels. Parts of nature are not completely separate entities but are related to each other in one form or another and those parts of nature wholly affect for psychopathology. According to this approach, people become mentally imbalanced by interaction of both personalization and situationalization. Athnopsychopathological approach interests in the environmental factors in the development of pathological factors while the ethopsychopathological approach studies the human and animal behavior in normal environment and finds causes for psychopathology in normal environment. The socio-cultural approach concerns about the connection between psychological dysfunctions and social and cultural factors like sex, age, class, occupation, ethnicity, region etc. that can be led to psychopathology (Carson, 2000). Thus we can see that above mentioned perspectives and approaches try to understand the causes for psychopathology from different angles. The Importance of Biological Approach for Understanding Psychopathology. The model I selected to present interests and limitations is the biological approach of psychopathology. As I perceive, this model clearly explains causal factors with reasonable evidences for psychopathology and the treatments for it. As we all know, mind and body are closely interrelated. Though until researches can’t find the location of mind it is sure that it is not outside from the body. From the past, in psychology we talk about the close relationship between these two entities. Mind affects on body and in return body affects on mind. This notion is believed not only by psychiatrists, psychologists, psychopathologists but also by various religious leaders. This perspective focuses on mental disorders or mental illnesses as disorders of the central nervous system, the autonomic system or endocrine system that are either inherited or caused by some pathological process. Simply, this model adopting a medical perspective view abnormal behavior as an illness brought about by malfunctioning parts of the organism (Carson, Butcher & Mineka, 2000 ). Specifically, biological theorists point to a malfunctioning brain as the primary cause of pathological behavior (Gershon & Reider, 1932). As this perspective describes mental disorders can be counted as neurological diseases that have resulted from disruption of brain functioning by physical and chemical means. But this does not emphasize that neurological damage always result in psychological malfunction. As this model suggests anatomical or biochemical problems of brain cells have a close connection with psychopathology. Excessive stress, inherited metabolic disorders, infections, allergies, tumors, inadequate blood supply and physical trauma can be created because of malfunction of brain cells. (Hroutunian, 1991, Murphy & Deutsch, 1991). In the same way, using neurological tests, clinicians have discovered the close and clear connection between mental disorders and specific problems of the brain. (Carson, Butcher & Mineka, 2000 ). For an instance the loss of neurons in the basal ganglia in the brain causes Huntington’s disease that result violent emotional outbursts, memory and cognitive difficulties, delusion and suicidal thinking etc. So, this instance clearly shows how far the biology can affect the mentality of an individual. Specially, functional mental disorders such as anxiety disorders, depression and schizophrenia are closely related with the physical dysfunctions of the brain. From the study of psychotropic medications, biologists have come to conclusion that most or all mental disorders have at least some physical basis (Greshon & Reider, 1992). When considering biological factors for mental disorders, this perspective focuses on five categories. 1. Neurotransmitter and hormonal imbalances 2. Genetic vulnerability 3. Chromosomal abnormalities 4. Constitutional liabilities 5. Physical deprivation or disruption Psychopathology and Neurotransmitter and hormonal imbalances. As biologists believe, for the better function of the brain adequately neurons or excited nerve cells needed to be able to communicate with each other. For this communication chemicals called neurotransmitters are very important and they play a key role in moving information through brain (Kanof, 1991). According to neurological studies, imbalances of these neurotransmitters can cause different mental disorders (Gershon & Reider,1992). Specially, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin and GABA neurotransmitters have close connection with psychopathology (Carson, Butcher & Mineka, 2000). For example insufficient activity of GABA can cause anxiety disorders (Murphy & Handelsman, 1991, Braestrup et al., 1982), excessive activity of dopamine can cause schizophrenia (Davis & Greenwald, 1991, Lee & Gershon, 1974) and low activity of norepinephrine and serotonin can cause depression (Seiver, Dvis & Gorman, 1991, Schildkrant, 1965). In the same way, imbalances of hormones which are considered as chemical messengers secreted by a set of endocrine glands can affect various parts of our body and brain. Specially, for mood and emotion regulation, hormones are very important. So if these hormones do not function well, we are emotionally imbalanced. Some hormones like adrenaline is very important to face with stressful situations. Psychopathology and Genetic vulnerability Another very important fact that biological pathologists consider about psychopathology is genes. Though the behavior is never determined by exclusively by genes sufficient evidence show that some mental illnesses are closely connected with heredity. Research studies done on depression, mental retardation called phenylketonuria (PKU), schizophrenia and alcoholism clearly show that those psychopathological functions have a great relationship with genes. (Plomin, DeFrries, McClern & Rutter, 1997). In the same way, researches prove that some temperaments like anxiety, outgoing, shy are genetically influenced (Carey & DiLalla, 1994, Kagan, 1993). Psychopathology and Chromosomal Abnormalities. Chromosomes which chainlike structures within a cell nucleus that contain genes help to decide the sex of an organism. Normal human cells have 46 chromosomes and research studies in developmental genetics show that abnormalities in the structure or number of chromosomes associate with mental disorders (Comer, 1995). Down syndrome is a fine example. Researches done by Hettema, Neale, Kendler and Plomin etc. certify this fact. Psychopathology and Constitutional Liabilities. Innate or acquired detrimental characteristics that is functionally similar to a genetic characteristic is called constitutional liability. Under this category, physical handicaps and temperaments are categorized. Researches done on the connection between mental disorders, have found that physical handicaps such as low birth etc. and temperaments can cause significant mental impairment. (Kepp & Kaler, 1989, CMcCarton et al., 1991). Reaction to a stimuli by a new born is simply called a temperament. Babies differ in temperament. They differ in synaptic ways in their emotions and arousal responses to various stimuli (Rothbart & Ahadi,1994). Researchers have found that temperaments have relationship with mental dysfunctions such as fearfulness, irritability, and frustration (Rothbarr & Ahaid 1994, Watson ,Clark, Horkness 1994). Psychopathology and Brain Dysfunction and Neural Plasticity As Eisenberg (1990) describes a significant damage of the brain can place a person at risk for psychopathology. Specially, brain damage in the elderly sometimes leads to psychopathology and increases vulnerability of less able to cope (Carson, Butcher & Mineka, 2000). Alzheimer’s disease is a fine example to it. With the sophisticated neuroimaging techniques, researchers have found that how brain dysfunction or damage causes psychopathology. In the same way, Greennough and Blak in 1992 have found that the formation of new neural connections (or synapses) after the birth is dramatically affected by the experience a young organism has ( p. 78). Psychopathology and Physical Deprivation or Disruption For maintaining a sound mental life a sound physical life is needed. As researches certify if our basic biological needs such as food, oxygen, water, sleep, elimination of waste products are not supplied, it will leads to psychological imbalance (Carson, Butcher & Mineka, 2000). Depression is frequently accompanied with a significant physical illness. Insufficient rest, inadequate diet, working too hard can also cause psychological impairment. Carskadon (1990) says that performance lapses that are associated with excessive sleepiness can increase vulnerability to accidents, use of caffeine and alcohol and mood and behavior problems (p. 79). Researches done during Second World War on mental disorders have proven that food deprivation causes mental imbalances. Food deprivation causes depression accompanied by apathy, feeling of inadequacy and loss of interest in sex. Amcoff (1984) and Lazzoft (1989) have found that malnutrition can cause mental illness. Winick (1976) has found that infants who have died because of malnutrition during their first year of life have 60 percent below of total nerve cells when comparing with normal babies (p. 74). So when considering above mentioned facts, it is clear that how the biology affects the mentality of an organism. If our body especially brain does not function well, it affects our whole mentality. In the same way, body is the closest entity to the mind. So, if anything happens to body it affects to the mend. Thus, this perspective helps us to understand various new information about psychopathology more than other perspectives. Not only that but also mostly biological treatments are the best when treating for mental disorders. They have proven significant advance. Problems and Limitations of Biological Approach of Psychopathology. When considering the problems or limitations of this perspective one main thing is that this perspective considers that all human behaviors can be explained in biological terms and treated with biological methods. Actually, though it is true that biology affects our behavior, thoughts, feelings and emotions, that biology is not the only factor that affect on them. Other factors like environment, cognition, our cultural values, norms, preferences, prejudices also affect on our mentality. That is why we become mentally sick if we are unable to fulfill needs of society. So, our mental life is an interplay of both biological and non biological factors and it is not suitable for developing perspective to be limited to one extreme. In the same way, some of the biological explanations are incomplete and inclusive. For example many neurological studies have been conducted using animals. So, researchers can’t be hindered percent sure about the mental changes of humans and animals are same. Not only that but also some studies on human genetic and genealogical studies also have some problems. Pointing out some of the problems and limitations of this perspective, Gorenstain (1992) says that prominent biological psychiatrists say that if we can show that a particular biological attribute is causally related to a particular abnormal mental condition, then that mental condition is objectively considered as an illness. As Gorentein says it is wrong and illusionary labeling mental disorders considering only biological factors. This perspective sees mental distress as biological condition with biological causes. It is also a limitation according to Gorenstain. Gorenstain arguing against this view says that psychological causes can be distinguished from biological causes “only prior to their entity into the central nervous systems (p. 123). Because of these shortcomings, today less extreme version of biological view point has emerged- biopsychological viewpoint which allows for other causal factors but primarily focus on the genetic, biochemical and other biological processes. Actually, biological psychopathology is still developing and it is common that a developing approach has problems and limitations. We can’t just reject this approach concerning those limitations as this approach is very important to understand not only psychopathology but also various other biological processes. Conclusion When considering above mentioned facts it is clear that psychopathology is a famous topic in various fields and the importance of different perspectives, approaches and theories of psychopathology. Those perspectives, approaches and theories are greatly helpful to understand psychopathologcal processes and the treatments they introduce are a blessing for mankind. The psychopathology can be clearly explained by biological approach when comparing with other approaches and though it has some limitations, it has proved that it is the best approach to understand the psychopathology. References Barlow, D. H., & Durand,V. M, (2005). Abnormal psychology (4th ed). USA: Thomson Wadsworth. Carson, R. C., Butcher, J. N., Mineka, S., (2000), Abnormal psychology and modern life (11th ed.) India: Pearson Education. Comer, R. J., (1995). Abnormal psychology (2nd ed.). USA: W. H. Freeman and Company. Schultz, D. P., & Schultz S. E., (2004). A history of modern psychology. (8th ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth and Thomson Learning. Schwartz, S., (1993). Classical studies in Abnormal psychology. London : Mayfield Publishing Company. Sharrf, R. S., (2004). 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