Aggression - Definitions

Aggression - Definitions • “Aggression is a hostile action directed against a person or a thing” – Dictionary of Psychology, 1987. Need to assault or injure another, to belittle, harm ridicule, or accuse maliciously, to punish severely, or to engage in sadistic behavior (Murray, Aggression - DefinitionsPotentially harmfulacts, which is intentionally inflicted and aversive to the victim (McEvoy, Estrem, Rodriguez, and Olson; 2003Research studies reveal that aggression and violence in humans and animals areinherent as well as learnt faculties (Berk, 1994; Baron & Byrne, 1997; ACT, 2003). heories of Aggression. Instinct theories of aggression – aggression as an innate tendency 1.1. Freud’s theory • aggression stems from innate tendencies. • is part of human nature and humans are “programmed” for violence by their basic nature. • Believed that aggression stems from a powerful death wish or instinct called “thanatos” possessed by theindividuals. Freud’s theory He said, this death instinct is initially aimed at self- destruction. • However, it is often redirected outward, at others. Freud believed that hostile impulses generate within and snowballs overtime.• If not released, they acquire the capacity to conduct serious acts of violence. (Baron & Byrne, 1997; Smith, A.K, 1999) Konard Lorenz • He combined the instinct theory presented by Freud and Darwin’s theory of evolution. • proposed that aggression stems from a fighting instinct, which develops during the course of evolution because it promoted survival of the species. • He said that aggression promotes • The spread of the population over a widearea • This fighting instinct is related to mating, fighting helps assures that only the strongest would pass genes on to future generationsheories of Aggression 1. Instinct theories of aggression – aggression as an innate tendency • It is said that Freud and Lorenz used somewhat circular reasoning. Critic’s state since they observe that aggression is a widespread behavior in animals and humans they must be reasoned that it is a universal behavior and thus originate within and is a built in urge. They use the high incidence of aggression as support for the presence of such instincts and impulses. (Baron and Byrne, 1997) Biological theories of aggression • Growing body of evidence suggests that vascular and neuro-endocrine factors predispose some individuals toward aggression in comparison to nonaggressive individuals. • Schmidt, Fox, Rubin, Hu, and Hamer (2002) report that preschool children with long versus short repeat alleles of the DRD4 (Dopamine D4 receptor) gene were described by their mothers to have significantly more problems with aggression at age 4. Impact of Serotonin • Reduced serotonin (an important neurotransmitter) level cause individuals to behave aggressively. • In study which made a careful analyses of blood chemistry of three groups of persons consisting; a group who had attempted suicide, a group who had been institutionalized from childhood due extreme indication of violent behavior and a group of healthy volunteers. Impact of Serotonin • The results indicate that the latter two groups differed from healthy volunteers with respect to measures reflecting reduced levels of serotonin, drawing the interpretation that the experimental groups did not have the ability to control their impulses due to this effect. (Marazzitti et al, 1993; Baron & Byrne, 1997). • However, results of the study conducted by Schmidt, Fox, Rubin, Hu, Hamer, 2002 do not seem to support this fact as their results indicate that no significant group difference was found for the correlation between behavioral measures of aggression and serotonin transporter or serotonin 2C receptor genes. Impact of Testosterone • Growing body of evidence suggest that a male sex hormone called testosterone affects the level aggression that individuals display. • Evidence comes from female transsexuals receiving large doses of testosterone report higher levels of anger and aggression during treatment (Van Goozen, Frijda, & de Poll, 1994). • Sanchez-Martin, Fano, Ahedo, Cardas, Brain, and Azpiroz, 2000 assessed potential relationship between series of behavioral interactions including aggressive behaviors and testosterone levels of 28 boys and 20 girls of preschool age. Impact of Testosterone • Their correlation analysis indicated that positive relationship existed between testosterone and giving and receiving aggression in the context of social interaction in boys but not in the playful aggression during play. • They point out that testosterone can be a useful biological marker for serious aggression. Brain damage (atrophy etc.,), and neural mechanisms – • Extreme aggression may be linked to neural mechanisms that regulate our emotions. • Individuals who have tumors or damaged their brains due to accidents have reported to behave in an extremely violent manner (Perry, 1997). Drive theories of aggression • These theories suggest that aggression stems from externally elicited motives or drive to harm others. There are several theoretical approaches presented in this context. They are: Frustration Aggression Hypothesis - Dollard and Miller • frustration causes the arousal of a drive whose primary goal is to harm others. (Baron and Byrne, 1997). • Hence, According to this view, frustration always leads to some form of aggression and aggression always stems from frustration. • However, both of these statements express the continuous and unavoidable nature of aggressive impulses leaving little chance to control one’s mind. Frustration Aggression Hypothesis - Berkowitz • Berkowitz (1989) proposed a revision. • According to him frustration is an aversive practice leading to aggression due to its unpleasant nature. • Berkowitz was under the impression that frustration sometimes leads to aggression due to its basic relationship between negative affect and aggression. Frustration Aggression Hypothesis - Berkowitz • He further said this could explains the reason behind sudden or unexpected/ unjustified frustration causing stronger aggressive impulses. • Berkowitz proposed that when individuals or animals are unable to reach their goals due to unperceived stimuli, the generated frustration toward these stimuli is stronger or produces more negative affect as compared to a one that is expected or perceived as justifiable. Social learning theories of aggression• Social learning theory contends that aggressive behaviors are learned through direct experience or through observation (Bandura, 1961; Baron & Byrne, 1997). • Individuals do not inherit violent tendencies but learn them through attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation. Cognitive theories of aggression • Aggression causes of retaliation, or fight or flight are complex that it was contended earlier. • Whether an individual would behave aggressively depend on several cognitive factors such as scripts or ‘cognitive programs, appraisal (reason behind the event) affect (current mood of the individual etc.,) and other factors (e.g., memories and thoughts) that a person may have regarding the event. • Also state that an individual’s current mood would also affect the way he/she would behave. • If individuals are in an aversive unpleasant mood it would result the person to behave negativel and aggressively (Baron & Byrne, 1997). Forms of Aggression • i. Physical/ Overt Vs Relational Aggression. Physical - overt display of aggression such as hitting, pushing, kicking, throwing objects or threatening with an intention of harming another individual (Siegler, Deloache & Eisenbeg, 2003; McEvoy et al, 2003). Relational - not so visible forms of aggression such as social exclusion, facial expressions of aggression and body postures (McEvoy et al., 2003; Crick, Casas & Ku, 1999) Research Studies - girls displayed more relational aggressionii. Reactive Vs Proactive Aggression • Reactive - more hostile or impulsive form of aggression is considered as directed at someone or something, to be person oriented rather than goal oriented • Proactive - goal oriented, unemotional and reported to be evoked with little physiological arousaliii. Defensive Vs Instrumental Aggression • Kenneth Dodge (1980) identifies defensive aggression as a form of hostile and assertive response to a perceived threat or intentional frustration. • He differentiates defensive aggression from instrumental aggression, the primary goal of which is not to harm the victim but harmful behavior is projected to gain an independent reward/ valued resource and which may be changed by the appropriate manipulation of reward and punishmentAggressive Behaviors in Children Research Outcomes • children indulge in different types of aggressive behaviors such as direct physical, verbal, and relational aggression, indirectverbal, and relational aggression. • aggressive behaviors are common phenomena in the preschool class • boys were somewhat more aggressive than Girls • Children are more likely to aggress if another child had just performed an act of aggressionDevelopmental Aspects of Aggression • During the second half of the first year, infants develop the cognitive capacity to identify sources of anger and frustration and the motor skills to lash out at them. • The most common is instrumental aggression, aimed at obtaining an object, privilege, and space with no deliberate intent to harm another person (Berk, 1994; ACT, 2004). • during the early-years children instigate brief aggressive episodes more frequently in comparison to older children who show less frequent but continued episodes of aggression (Fagot & Hagan, 1985). Studies point out that aggression as an enduring behavioral pattern remains consistent from early childhood to-at times-adulthood. • Rubin, Burger, Dwyer and Hastings (2003) observed 104 toddlers interacting with a same sex peer and their mothers. They found that children who were aggressive as toddlers inclined to be aggressive even in their preschool years. • Similar findings were reported in a study conducted by Keenan and Shaw, (1994) in a laboratory assessment conducted with 89 toddlers. boys tended to deliver and receive more physical aggression • girls were more prone to give and receive more relationalaggression. • qualitative review of relational aggressive data - preschool children exhibited age-advanced relationally aggressive strategies that involved gossiping, secret telling and rumor spreading though occurrences of these behaviors were subtle/ covert in nature. Ostrov, Woods, Jansen, Casas and Crick (2004) • peer ratings for physical aggression were higher for boys than for girls. Tapper and Boulton (2004) Personal Causes Associated with Aggression • Dodge (1980) found that aggressive boys expected continued hostility from the peer instigators. • Children who are rejected by their peers have an inclination to focus on instrumental outcomes more often than relational outcomes and may not be considerate about the potential emotional harm that they cause to the peers (Crick & Ladd, 1990). • Aggressive children seem to enjoy the aggressing against the target (Arsenio et al., 2000) • Have difficulties in understanding emotions of others (Arsenio et al., 2000; Denham, et al., 2002). Aggression - Factors Associated with Parenting • Parental socialization and child rearing practices have been recognized as contributory factors of aggression. • Physical punishment, rejection of the child, inconsistency and disorganization in the family system (Baumrind, 1997; McMurran, 1999; Kitzmann, et al., 2003) seem to make children feel hurt, angry and violent as children may grow up believing that the world is a hostile and dangerous place like his/her family and aggression is one of the best options of resolving conflict (Staub, 1989). Aggression - Factors Associated with Parenting • Farver, et al. (2005) reported that mother’s depression acts as a partially mediating factor between family conflicts and preschool children’s distress. • Stanger, Dumenci, Kamon, and Burstein (2004) found that inconsistent discipline was significantly related to children’s rule breaking, aggressive behaviors and attention seeking. Aggression in Children as a Consequence of Violence • There is evidence that children who behave aggressively with their peers have been victims of some form of violence (Conaway & Hansen, 1989) • Exposure to violence in early childhood leads to potential disruptive behaviors in adolescents and adults (Conduct problem prevention group, 1996; Staub, 1989; Widom, 1989; Wilson & Hernstein, 1985). • Research outcomes - Children are affected by different types of violence such as domestic, television, community and politicalCost and Consequences of Aggression to Varied Parties • Children and youth become involved in harmful violence in several different ways: • Aggressors who initiate violence on victims • Victims who receive violence • Bystanders, who support violence through instigation, active encouragement and passive acceptance of violence (Staub, 1989; Slaby & Strringham, 1994). Victims • Children used internalizing (crying, worrying too much about it etc.) and distancing strategies when they were targets of relational aggression • used externalizing strategies such as throwing things, hitting or getting angry when they were the target of overt or physical aggression. • Younger children reported that they receive a greater amount of aggression (both overt and relational). • High target children were more likely to use internalizing strategies and use less problem solving strategies than their less victimized peers. • Phelps (2001) • boys often victimize girls. Victims repeatedly bullied by peers are often reported to have suffered long-term consequences of social rejection, depression, and impaired self-esteem (Olweus, 1993; Straus, 1995). • at risk of becoming aggressors, by responding to the perceived threat with defensive aggressive attack, retaliating against their aggressors or becoming a perpetrator of aggression against others (McCord, 1983; Widom, 1989; Straus1991). Also, being high targets of relational aggression may result in emotional difficulties for children such as depression and anxiety in comparison to their non-targeted peers (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995). • Therefore, victims of aggression in early childhood, if not helped to respond effectively, are likely to be victimized repeatedly (Patterson, Littman, & Bricker1967; Schwartz, Dodge, & Coie, 1994). .Bystanders • Bystanders (i.e., those who witness conflict among others) often contribute to aggression among other children through direct instigation, active encouragement, or passive acceptance (Staub, 1989; Slaby, Roedell, Arezzo, & Hendrix, 1994). • Musher-Eizenman et al (2004) found that witnessing peer aggression predicted higher levels of fantasizing about both direct and indirect aggression in school children indicating that witnessing aggressive episodes may enhance the potential for aggression in children. Aggressors • Young children who act aggressively tend to show other difficult and maladaptive social behaviors, such as tantrums, defiance and failure to cooperate. • Persistent aggressive behavior directed toward peers often leaves the aggressively acting child with few or no positive, stable peer relationships. • Physical aggression is predictive of peer rejection during the preschool years (Ladd, 1988). • Children with aggressive behaviors are at high risk for loneliness and lack of peer support to help them through the difficult times (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995; Crick et al., 1997; Hawkins, 1993; Steinkamp, 1990). Aggressors • Crick and Grotpeter (1995) found that relational aggression might also have a harmful impact for aggressors such as social and emotional maladjustments, higher levels of loneliness, depression, and negative self-perceptions in comparison to their peers. • Findings are consistent with that of Crick et al. (1997) who also report that both forms of aggression were related to social psychological maladjustment for preschool childrenYoung children who show signs of aggression are more likely to perform poorly in academic activities and in later childhood and adolescence are at a greater risk of dropping out of school (Raver et al., 2002). • Aggressive children are not accepted by peers and teachers (Kupersmidt & Coie, 1990; Shores & Wehby, 1999) Peer rejection or acceptance is related to later maladjustment and poor academic performance, especially among elementary school children and adolescent boys (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 1998). • These antisocial children participate less frequently in classroom activities and do more poorly in school than their more emotionally positive, prosocial counterparts, even after one controls for the effects of children's preexisting cognitive skills and family backgrounds (Ladd, Birch, & Buhs, 1999). A high level of aggressive behavior in childhood is also predictive of a variety of serious problems in adulthood, including criminal violent behavior, other anti-social behavior, spouse abuse, and tendency toward severe punishment of one’s children. (Huesmann et al.,1984; Conduct problem prevention group, 1996). It also involves costs in psychological, social, health and legal areas • and there is an enormous physical and emotional long term cost to the families, friends, teachers, and significant others associated with the aggressor and the victims (WHO, 2000; Elliot, Prior, Merrigan, & Ballinger, 2002). Research reviewed focuses on three main factors in the development of aggression and other forms of internalizing behavior. 1. Forces that are internal to the child (gender, temperament, biological development, self regulatory processes and social cognitive information processing) 2. Socialization forces that emerge within a child’s social interactions and relationships (Parenting styles, attachment relationships, and peer interactions) 3. External forces such as structure and violence in the family, and media ( specifically television violence), violence in the community and country)